For a semester I studied abroad at Nanyang Technological University in Singapore. There I was able to see people of different cultures interact in a harmonious manner. I also traveled around the Southeast Asian region to Thailand, Malaysia, and Indonesia. In Southeast Asia, I felt liberated from racism because I was accepted without regard for my ethnicity. Walton Brown’s "Racism: Made in Japan" found in the summer 1988 publication of Business and Society Review discusses racist remarks made by Japanese government officials against Black Americans. However, Brown’s article is limited because it does not confront the issue of Black American stereotypes being exported to Asia through American media. Other Black Americans have had positive experiences in Asia similar to mine. "Soul and Sushi", a newspaper article found in Newsweek’s May 4, 1998 issue (p. 36 -- 41), discusses in depth the impartial society Black professionals experience in the Asian cities of Singapore, Tokyo, and Hong Kong. My experiences coupled with the experiences of others gave me hope for an improved society at large; a society without de facto segregation.

Social groups have conformed to accepted standards of de facto segregation for many years. These accepted standards are limiting and unproductive. To repudiate de facto segregation is to crush the vulgar beast of racism and create racial harmony. In this thesis, the beauty of achieving harmony by eliminating racism is directly explored.

INTRODUCTION

The first step in eliminating social groups’ practice of de facto segregation is to recognize the role group identity plays in it. Group identity answers the question to what group do I belong. The answer may appear to be as simple as African American, but if you take a deeper look a person can identify with many different groups. Group identity can be both nested and crosscutting.

Nested identity is the concept of single group identification. According to the nested identity theory, people’s identities are formed in a hierarchical fashion. If you are interacting on one level of your identity spectrum you cannot concurrently be interacting at a different level of your identity spectrum. Crosscutting identification allows people to portray a multitude of group identities at the same time. "A main feature of the human faculty for identification is that individuals can become conscious of belonging to several groups at one and the same time." (Elliott, 1986, p.10) For instance, a person can relate to their gender identity and their ethnic identity at the same time. Also, I an American who studied abroad, can relate to my identity as an American and my Singaporean experience as well. Furthermore, I can relate to my identity as a Black American with all its heritage and ancestry, and concurrently relate to the Chinese culture that I gained. Crosscutting identification forms identities in an interdependent manner. Each group relies on other groups, and by interacting in this fashion, groups form interdependent relationships. These interdependent relationships allow an individual to manifest many different group identities at one time.

Nested identity and crosscutting identity are two different approaches to group consciousness. Group consciousness is identifying with a group because of some likeness or similarity that all members of the group possess. Social attachment is developed because of feelings of loyalty and devotion to the group even in lieu of personal relationships. Because relationships are formed interdependently groups with crosscutting identification have a better chance of understanding and relating to one another. It is my hope that by utilizing a crosscutting identification we can develop feelings of loyalty and devotion to the Homo Sapien group, and learn to be united and harmonious.

BLACK AMERICANISM

Dr. Maya Angelou is a world-renowned poet and novelist. She married a South African freedom fighter and moved to Cairo, Egypt for two years. Her son was accepted at the University of Ghana. He was severely injured in a car accident, and she remained in Ghana to care for him. Maya Angelou experienced first hand what it was like to be a Black American in West Africa. In the 1960’s, she returned to the United States to aid in the civil rights movement for Black people.

"Our people had always longed for home. For centuries we had sung about a place not built with hands, where the streets were paved with gold, and were washed with honey and milk. There the saints would march around wearing white robes and jeweled crowns. There, at last we would study war no more and, more important, no one would wage war against us again.

The old Black deacons, ushers, mothers of the church and junior choirs only partially meant heaven as that desired destination. In the yearning, heaven and Africa were inextricably combined."

(Angelou, 1986, p.19-20)

Distinct differences between Black Americans and Black Africans are tribal membership, languages, and traditions Black Africans possess that Black Americans do not have. Specifically, one Black African tradition customary among the Somali is clitorectomy. The practice of clitorectomy is incomprehensible to Black Americans. One custom that some Black Americans practice is jumping the broom at their wedding. Jumping the broom is a custom derived from Black American slave ancestry. In Harriet Cole’s book, Jumping the Broom, it discusses how the ritual was created by our ancestors during slavery because slaves could not legally marry, so they created their own rituals to honor their unions. Jumping the broom is a wonderful way that Black Americans pay homage to their ancestors for not only surviving, but also excelling in an environment so painful and desolate. Without our ancestors surviving the long treacherous journey of the Middle Passage on slave ships while they were packed like sardines, surviving brutal beatings and lynchings inflicted by vicious overseers, and fighting for our civil rights, where would we be today? Jumping the broom is a symbol of the importance of a Black American’s slave ancestry. Additionally, because there are no tribal identities among us, it also symbolizes one unified identity among Black American people.

These are the differences in the culture of a Black American and a Black African. The culture difference is so vast that a Black American will have more in common with someone of another color, but a similar culture. There is always the common bond of color, but the experiences, upbringing, and socialization are so different that after color and race issues have been discussed, I found that I can personally relate better to someone having similar life experiences. For example, experiencing 4th of July barbecues, Thanksgiving Dinners, singing Lift Every Voice and Sing, saying the Pledge of Allegiance, watching American Football games, and taking the SAT. These are all things that I can relate to that have to do with being an American.

While I was in Singapore, I learned there was a difference between Blacks in America and Africa. I soon discovered that I enjoyed spending time with Angeline, my Chinese Singaporean friend more than I did with my Black African friends. Angeline and I had many things in common. She had been an exchange student in Sweden. She too had endeavored to learn Swedish, the language of her host country just as I was venturing to learn Mandarin. We related to each other in so many ways that I never imagined before I went to Singapore. For instance I began attending Faith Community Baptist Church with Angeline. I was invited to celebrate Chinese New Year with her family. We often went sightseeing and shopping together, and I practiced my Chinese with her and her mother. Her family adopted me.

I appreciated my Black African friends, but I soon realized that we did not have much in common other than race. Our discussions centered around the state of Blacks all over the world today. We conversed about past injustices brought upon our ancestors, present effects of past injustices, and plans for improving the future for our race. This is important to me, but there are other things that are important to me like astronomy, politics, religion, and economics.

Also, there is an emotional impact slavery had on Black Americans that Black Africans do not always understand. This is what is referred to as mental slavery. Blacks are physically free, but mentally still enslaved. The seeds for mental slavery were planted during slavery times to try to keep slaves from uniting and rebelling. The impact of these seeds still affect many Black Americans today. To aid in understanding mental slavery here is a speech purportedly given by William Lynch¹. William Lynch was a British slave owner in the West Indies. His speech was quoted by Minister Louis Farrakhan at the Million Man March in Washington D.C. and appeared in an issue of The AFRO-American newspaper.

"Gentlemen:

I greet you here on the bank of the James River in the year of our lord, one thousand seven hundred and twelve. First, I shall thank you, the gentlemen of the colony of Virginia, for bringing me here. I am here to help you solve some of your problems with slaves. Your invitation reached me in my modest plantation in the West Indies where I have experimented with some of the newest and still the oldest method for control of slaves. Ancient Rome would envy us if my program is implemented. As our boat sailed South on the James River, named for our illustrious King James, whose Bible we cherish, I saw enough to know that our problem is not unique. While Rome used cords or wood as crosses for standing human bodies along the old highways in great numbers, you are here using the tree and the rope on occasion. I caught the whiff of a dead slave hanging from a tree a couple of miles back. You are losing valuable stock by hangings, you are having uprisings, slaves are running away, your crops are sometimes left in the fields too long for maximum profit, you suffer occasional fires, your animals are killed, Gentleman, you know what your problems are; I do not need to elaborate. I am not here to enumerate your problems, I am here to introduce you to a method of solving them. In my bag, I have a foolproof method for controlling your slaves. I guarantee every one of you that if installed it will control the slaves for at least three hundred years. My method is simple, any member of your family or any overseer can use it. I have outlined a number of differences among the slaves, and I take these differences and make them bigger. I use fear, distrust, and envy for control purposes. These methods have worked on my modest plantation in the West Indies, and it will work throughout the South. Take this simple little list of differences and think about them. On the top of my list is "age" but it is only there because it starts with an "A". The second is "color" or shade. There is intelligence, size, sex, size of plantation, attitude of owner, whether the slaves live in the valley, on a hill, east, west, north, or south, have fine or coarse hair, or is tall or short. Now that you have a list of differences, I shall give you an outline of action- but before that, I shall assure you that distrust is stronger than trust, and envy is stronger than adulation, respect, or admiration. The black slave, after receiving this indoctrination, shall carry on and will become self-refueling and self-generating for hundreds of years, maybe thousands. Don't forget you must pitch the old black versus the young black males, and the young black male against the old black male. You must use the dark skinned slaves versus the light skin slaves. You must use the female versus the male, and the male versus the female. You must always have your servants and overseers distrust all blacks, but it is necessary that your slaves trust and depend on us. Gentlemen, these kits are your keys to control, use them. Never miss an opportunity. My plan is guaranteed, and the good thing about this plan is that if used intensely for one year the slave will remain perpetually distrustful."

-WILLIAM LYNCH, 1712

I will never forget the time Angeline and I were in McDonalds eating lunch. She was excited about a story she had read in A 4th Course of Chicken Soup for the Soul. She brought the book to lunch in order to share the story with me. The story was about a man reminiscing on a childhood experience one summer during a youth program. He was remembering this childhood incident because of a young Black golf player being honored at a banquet. The golf player’s team had forfeited a championship game because the golf club where the championship was being held would not allow Blacks to play at the facility. He was the only Black player on the team.

The incident that the narrator recalled happened when he was the only Black in a summer program, and the program took the children on a field trip to Washington D.C. He had a wonderful time in our country’s capitol, and the group was continuing on to an amusement park in Virginia. The evening before the trip to Virginia one of the group leaders told the narrator that she was sorry, but he would have to stay at the hotel instead of continuing on with the group to Virginia. Virginia was segregated and did not allow Blacks to play at the amusement park. The narrator was having such a wonderful time up until that moment, and he began crying profusely because of this bad news. His White roommate, who did not understand what was going on, soon discovered what was happening, and decided that if his new friend were not allowed to go, then he would not go either. The White roommate then made an announcement to the rest of the group, and the entire group decided that they would not go to Virginia’s amusement park. They stayed in Washington D.C. another day.

This story struck such emotion inside of me that I began to cry in McDonalds. I am a very private person, who does not like to be seen crying in public, but I was overcome with emotion. One of my emotions, was joy because I knew that my Chinese Singaporean friend truly related to my feelings. She continually showed me her concern about causes and race issues that were important to me. She related to me even though she was not Black. I discovered that Chinese Singaporeans had causes and race issues as well, and I became a proponent for her causes and issues.

Another reason that I began to cry was because the story gave me hope. I felt that it was possible for Whites in America to be concerned about injustices against Blacks. I had lost that hope. I too have been the only Black in a summer program, only the children in my program were not as kind. While visiting my grandmother in Rock Hill, South Carolina, I was a participant in the YMCA summer programs. I had one experience in 1988 where two boys in my own program called me a nigger, and after being scolded one had the audacity to do it again. One time the Y took us on a roller skating trip and three boys from a church organization skating at the same rink skated over to me, pushed me, and repeatedly called me a nigger. In 1990, I was one of 3 Black eighth grade students at St. Paul Elementary School in Grosse Pointe Farms, MI. During this year an unidentified person(s) wrote nigger on my school binder and anonymously telephoned my house to call me racial epitaphs. I have also had unpleasant racial experiences in college. I have had so many negative experiences with apathetic Whites, that I truly had no real hope for racial harmony in America. That has changed as a result of my trip to Singapore and witnessing my host country’s racial harmony. I believe that we can accomplish racial harmony here in America, too.

Instead of focusing on methods that will end racism and make the quality of life in America better, often Black Americans fantasize about Africa. My Black African friends felt that Black Americans were so out of touch with Africa that we had no real ties. The tribes that our ancestors belonged to have changed so much over the years that if we were to trace our ancestry, (which is nearly impossible because of slavery) the tribes would not be the same as they were over 400 years ago. They felt that if we were truly "African-Americans", or African brothers and sisters in the Diaspora then we should do more for the mother continent.

From my experiences in Singapore, I learned that a White South African and a Black South African have a more similar appreciation for world issues, than a Black American and a Black South African. And, I learned that a Black American and a Chinese Singaporean have more similar life experiences than a Black African and a Black American. I learned that people are people, no matter what race, gender, or religion. We all have differences, but we have more similarities than we chose to realize. We are all beautiful and created as equals in God’s sight. We should respect one another, help one another, and appreciate each other.

INFERIOR MINDSET

I read an article entitled "Meet NTU’s Miss Singapore 1997" by Sophia Ang in my host university’s newspaper, The Chronicle, January 1998 issue. Miss Singapore 1997 is a student at my host university, and her name is Jasmine Wong. As I was reading the article I became more aware of the discrimination that Chinese and other Orientals encounter. Jasmine Wong competed in the Miss World International Contest, and the article details the discrimination that she faced at the pageant. The article also helped me understand that all social groups have insecurities and battle to overcome feelings of inadequacy.

Jasmine Wong discussed the discrimination she experienced and how she felt about her chances of winning the Miss World International beauty pageant.

"Beauty and brains are not enough for an Asian contestant to wear the winner’s tiara in an international beauty pageant when up against their Caucasian counterparts. ‘(Caucasians) have got big, beautiful eyes, (good) complexion, hair and build,’ said Wong. ‘(But) Asians have a chance as long as they’ve exotic looks. Miss India (the winner) is Asian but she has a very exotic look. Because Singapore is a small country, there is a limited choice of local girls. So when Singapore sends her girls there, the main purpose is not to win the contest but rather to promote the country,’ said Wong.

‘There were some obnoxious contestants who subtly pushed me to the side when we were taking photos together,’ she said. She also revealed an incident about prejudices she encountered as a contestant. ‘I was standing next to Miss France when a photographer came up to me and said, ‘Excuse me, Miss Singapore, can you please stand aside, I want to take a photograph of Miss France only.’ They (the photographers) didn’t just do it to me, they did it to all the Asian girls. It’s so difficult to get them to take our photographs. Some girls threw themselves at the photographers and flirted outrageously with them but most didn’t because winning is not on our minds; we know we’ll never win.’ "

Jasmine Wong felt that a Chinese or any other Oriental contestant was incapable of successfully competing with White contestants. She felt that the Caucasian build, eyes, and complexion were more beautiful. She stated that if any Asian had a chance of winning it would be an exotic Asian like Miss India, and not an Oriental Asian.

Jasmine Wong revealed that she never expected to win the Miss World International contest, and that she merely wanted to get exposure for her country, because she felt that it was impossible for her to win. This attitude is self-defeating. She should have participated in the Miss World International pageant confident that she was the best candidate and that she would come home with the winner’s tiara. Having an attitude that you will lose lowers your chances for winning. This self-defeatist attitude yields the same results in every arena. Take for example poor disadvantaged youth that believe they can never become productive contributors of society, because they believe and live that thought every day of their life, they never do become productive contributors of society.

My family has taught me what you believe you can achieve. I had a goal to become the first Black CEO of a Fortune 500 company. I am proud to say that Franklin Raines of Fannie Mae Corporation achieved that goal before me in May of 1998. Some people tried to convince me that I would never achieve that goal. I knew in my heart one day a Black person would attain the position of CEO of a Fortune 500 company, I might as well be the one to do it. Since Raines’ became CEO, I had to alter my goal slightly; now I want to be the first Black female CEO of a Fortune 500 company, and I am going to achieve it!

There has been an inferior mindset transmitted that many non-Caucasians have subconsciously received, but I feel that Jasmine Wong should have risen above the discrimination and realized in her own mind that she is just as capable of winning that coveted title as anyone. It hurt to relive the inferiority complex that I know exists, but it also helped me to see the similarities that all people face. I understood for the first time that Blacks were not alone in having subconscious feelings of inadequacy; feelings that we try so hard to overcome, and we do overcome. It is just that in situations like beauty pageants and promotions for CEO positions we feel disadvantaged because of racism and prejudices. We feel that there is a glass ceiling. I realize now, that Chinese have that in common with Blacks and that other social groups do too.

Other social groups such as women who are above average weight and balding men battle with feelings of inadequacy. Likewise, White professionals in the Asian workplace feel similar to Black professionals in an American workplace with the glass ceiling ideology. Furthermore, blondes and athletes battle with people believing they have beauty and brawn, but lack intellect.

The bottom line is that all social groups face prejudices of some kind and deal with feelings of inadequacy; proving again the similarities that exist between different social groups. If we could realize the many similarities, and respect the differences each social group has, we could start to unite and become one family, the human race.

COOKIES AND CREAM

Social groups can be ethnic, religious, or financial. Every social group is associated with positive and negative stereotypes. Additionally, each group has negative stereotypes concerning outgroups within the group identity. Outgroups are the "outcasts" of the social group, and every social group has outgroups and ingroups. "...The prototypicality of any ingroup member is the degree to which he or she exemplifies or is representative of some stereotypical attribute of the group as a whole..." (Turner, 1987, p.79). The individuals that ideally represent the ingroup can change based on frame of reference and category being observed. Therefore, the individuals that represent outgroups can change as well.

The outcasts of the White social group are called "poor white trash". Poor White trash are lower income Whites commonly stereotyped as living in trailer park communities. For Blacks the outgroup is called "Sell-out", "Uncle Tom", or "Oreo". For the purpose of this discussion we will focus on the term "Oreo". The term "Oreo" is derived from Oreo Cookies. Oreo Cookies are chocolate on the outside with a white creamy filling. Therefore, an "Oreo" is a person with Black pigmentation that acts White. A person who is deemed an Oreo-Cookie has a White personality because he or she identifies with Whites better than Blacks. An "Oreo" does not identify with Black Culture such as Black music, food, and traditions. Blacks also have a term called "Reverse Oreo". A "Reverse Oreo" is a White person who acts Black by identifying with Black culture more than White culture.

During the summer of 1993, I was a participant in the High School Summer Program at Rensselaer. In this summer program participants were high school students from all over America including the commonwealth of Puerto Rico. My close friends during this program included three Puerto Rican participants. During this program, my Puerto Rican friends exposed me to a term similar to "Oreo". The term is "Coconut". It follows along the same lines as "Oreo". A coconut is brown on the outside and white on the inside. Thus, a Hispanic outcast referred to as a "Coconut" has Brown pigmentation, but acts White by not relating to Hispanic culture, music, food, or traditions.

When I was a freshman at Rensselaer, during my first semester break in October of 1994, I went to New York City for the first time. While in New York City, I went to Greenwich Village. In the village I observed a gathering of people. There I saw a White man standing on a pedestal speaking to a small crowd of people. I was interested in the conversation and went over to listen to the discussion. During the course of the discussion, an American Indian spoke of the past injustices inflicted upon his people and the White man’s role in that injustice. The American Indian spoke of some American Indians as being "Apples". Knowing about "Oreo" and "Coconut", I immediately understood the term. This is when I learned American Indians had similar nomenclature for their social outgroups as well.

During Chinese New Year in Singapore, I learned that the Chinese in the People’s Republic of China (PRC) refer to the Chinese in Singapore as "Bananas". The PRC natives feel that Chinese Singaporeans do not possess the same passion for Chinese culture and traditions. Additionally, they feel that the Singaporeans have adopted a Western way of living.

I find it amazing that so many different ethnic groups have similar terms for their ethnic outcasts. It is also quite interesting that all of these terms for outgroups center around acting White. For example, there is not a term for an American Indian who identifies more with Black American Culture, or a Black American who identifies with Chinese culture. Ethnic groups contrast themselves against White because Whites have never accepted the culture of these groups. Europeans colonized countries all over the world. They traveled to a different country and tried to assimilate the country’s culture to their own European culture. In effect, Whites were saying the culture of the country was not good enough. The practice of comparing outgroups against acting White is really an action of rebelling against colonized consciousness. These terms for outgroups are a method of reinforcing group consciousness. Ingroup members feel that they are loyal to the group by not being in the same category with the outcasts.

These terms for outgroups are hurdles in the race for unity. These terms are hindering and unfair. It is unfair for a Black African to call a Black American a "White Queen" as some Ghanaians called my cousin’s wife when she was trying to trace her ancestry. It is also equally unfair to stereotype someone who has grown up devoid of Black culture and expect them to identify with it. This is often the case with mixed race children. We try to force mixed race children to choose between their two cultures, and if they do not choose Black culture we label them "Oreo". Mixed race children combine elements of both races. This is the best choice mixed children can make because they have a multicultural heritage. If others learned from mixed children’s ability to relate to many cultures, the world would be more harmonious.

Additionally, I was upset to discover the feelings of Chinese from PRC toward Chinese Singaporeans. I love Singapore. It is a wonderful country with its own culture and uniqueness separate from China. Singapore was once a British colony, and I feel it is very unfair to stereotype Chinese in Singapore as “Bananas” simply because they have a more Western lifestyle than China. These similarities in nomenclature for different ethnic group outcasts further support just how similar different ethnic groups truly are.

CONCLUSION

A Chinese proverb says, "The man who removes a mountain begins by carrying away small stones." Racism is an enormous mountain that we must all work to remove. The key to ending racism is to produce a paradigm shift.

There are many ways to help produce a paradigm shift. One way is to expose yourself. I began by allowing the Caucasian women I live with in the dormitories to see me press my hair or put my hair in braids. I also discuss with them my perspective on current events, such as President Clinton’s recent trip to Africa and affirmative action. Opening up to others allows people to understand what makes us all different. Understanding our differences eliminates fear of these differences. Another method that will produce a paradigm shift is to make small gestures to everyone. It is common that Blacks walking down the street will speak to each other and say hello, or use nonverbal communication by nodding to each other. I have begun to try and speak to everyone that I pass on the street, no matter what ethnicity. The results vary, sometimes people speak, and sometimes they do not, but at least I have made the effort. I have also begun inviting people to Black cultural events. This year during Black Awareness Week at Rensselaer I invited two people to our opening ceremonies, one was White and one was multicultural. I also invited my multicultural friend to our Kwanzaa celebration. Correspondingly, it is important to attend other races’ cultural events as well as inviting others to our own cultural events. For example, I participated in the Chinese New Year festivities while in Singapore.

Finally, we must give each other the benefit of the doubt. Often media images of ethnic groups are all that people are exposed to. Media images can be very limited, and people who rely on them truly have no knowledge of different ethnicities. We have to make allowances for the people that have no interaction with different ethnicities. It would be ideal to have a mandatory multicultural elementary and secondary school curriculum were everyone could be educated and knowledgeable concerning different cultures. Until that day arrives, it is essential for race relations that we give people the benefit of the doubt.

We are all special and unique, yet alike in so many important ways. We allow differences in race, religion, and gender to hinder our relationships. We should celebrate these differences, learn and grow from these differences. It is my desire to see one united world strong and harmonious.

A rainbow is a beautiful array of colors. The rainbow accentuates the positive characteristics of each color. All of the colors are united to bring beauty to the Earth. The rainbow is a paradigm for racial harmony. It is essential that we take control of our destiny and make the choice to end de facto segregation. Only then will we achieve the goal of racial harmony and unity among all people.

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Sewell, Dan. "Blacks Gain Buying Power". The Detroit News. July 1998 (6 Dec. 1998)

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